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Tuesday, May 19, 2026

V.I. Lenin - The Development of Capitalism in Russia

First published in 1899 with a new edition in 1908, Lenin's The Development of Capitalism in Russia is a systematic exploration of the Russian economy at the start of the century. It is based on an extremely detailed reading of official studies and statistics for the Russian economy, something that can prove daunting to the reader as Lenin repeatedly cites figures for machinery, land, farms, workers and almost every aspect of the economy. Lenin is challenging those, particularly the Russian radical Narodniks, who were arguing that Russia was not capitalist, or could not be capitalist. Instead Lenin deploys arsenals of statistics to prove quite the opposite. Russia was seeing the rapid development of capitalism in every part of the economy and those parts of the economy that were organised in older ways, were being squeezed by new markets, trade with the cities and production for profit.

One of the things that Lenin is keen to argue for, is the progressive nature of capitalist relations over those that preceed this. This theme runs through the book. For instance, in discussing the migration of labour around Russia aslabrouers seek work and better wages he writes:

Like the diversion of the population from agriculture to the towns, non-agricultural migration is a progressive phenomenon. It tears the population out of the neglected backward, history-forgotten remote spots and draws them into the whirlpool of modern social life. It increases literacy among the population, heightens their understanding, and gives them civilised habits and requirements.

Lenin cites studies and statistics to back up these claims. His argument is not just, however, that capitalist relations improve the lives and conditions (and outlook) of the producers, but also that the capitalist mode of production is an advance on the old feudal order, improving output, quality and developing the means of production rapidly. He thus rails against those, such as the Narodniks, who argue that capitalism is not a development, but rather a worsening of the situation for ordinary producers. They celebrate the older social relations, the small production units, the family farms and manufacturers, failing to recognise the historic significance of the emergence of capitalism out of feudalism. Lenin writes:

[The Narodnik economists] deny the progressive nature of capitalism in Russia, pointing to the fact that in agriculture our entrepreneurs readily resort to labour-service and in industry to the distribution of home work and that in mining they seek to secure the tying down of the worker, legislative prohibition of competition by small establishments, etc., etc. The illogicality of such arguments and their flagrant distortion of historical perspective are glaring. Whence, indeed, does it follow that the efforts of our entrepreneurs to utilise the advantages of pre-capitalist methods of production should be charged to our capitalism, and not to those survivals of the past which retard the development of capitalism and which in many cases are preserved by force of law?

He continues:

Should we not... be surprised at the fact that, under the circumstances, there are people who are capable of idealising the pre-capitalist economic order in Russia, and who shut their eyes to the most urgent and pressing necessity of abolishing all obsolete institutions that hinder the development of capitalism.

This is not to say that Lenin ignores the way that capitalism exploits working people. While arguing that "the drawing of women and juveniles into production is, at bottom, progressive" he continues that "the capitalist factory places these categories of the working population in particularly hard conditions" and argues for legislation that will reduce hours of work, improve conditions and so on. But he is very clear that it would be wrong to argue for the banning of women and young people from working in factories. The reason is, he argues, that the entry of these sections of the population into industry is smashing apart the old patriarchal order:

By destroying the old patriarchal isolation of these categories of the population who formerly never emerged from the narrow circle of domestic, family relationships, by drawing them into direct participation in social produciton, large-scale machine industry stimulates their development and increases their independence, in other words, creates conditions of life that are incomparably superior to the patriarch immobility of pre-capitalist relations.

It is remarkable to see how Lenin understands these dynamics, celebrating the shattering of old social relations and the emergence of new relations as capitalism develops new towns, new technology and draws millions into new forms of production.

Lenin tracks the way this takes place, first noting how emerging capitalist relations in the countryside have created stratas among the peasantry, the richer ones taking more land and beginning to employ other peasants as workers, then expanding their interests into other forms of production. He writes:

The separation of industry from agriculture takes place in connection with the differentiation of the peasantry, and does so by different paths at the two poles of the countryside: the wrll-to-do minority open industrial establishments, enlarge them improve their farming methods, hire farm labourers to till the land, devote and increasing part of the year to industry and... find it more convenient to separate their industrial from their agricultural undertakings.

Lenin emphasises the importance of the parallel processes of the "depeasantising" of the peasantry as labowners move from "labour-service" to wage labour, together with the transition of agriculture "into commodity production". This was the start, but it is inseparable from the development of capitalist industrial production. The parallels with the development of capitalism in England as analysed by Marx, are clear for all to see.

Lenin also follows Marx by noting that in addition to capitalism's exploitation of workers, it also impacts other relations. Here, for instance, Lenin discusses how the relationship between agriculture and industry could be mutually beneficial:

The growth of agricultural technical trades is extremely important as regards the development of capitalism. Firstly, this growth represents one of the forms of the development of commercial farming, and is, moreover, the form that shows most vividly the conversion of agriculture into a branch of industry of capitalist society. Secondly, the development of the technical processing of agricultural produce is usually connected intimately with technical progress in agriculture: on the one hand, the very production of the raw material for processing often necessitates agricultural improvement (the planting of root-crops, for example); on the other hand, the waste products of the processing are frequently utilised in agriculture, thus increasing its effectiveness and restoring, at least in some measure, the equilibrium, the interdependence, between agriculture and industry, the disturbance of which constitutes one of the most profound contradictions of capitalism.

Marx's writing on the "metabolic rift" between human society and nature, emerged from his critique of capitalist agriculture, and here Lenin shows his awareness of this, through a recognition that a rational use of the by-products of food processing could be used to offset one of capitalism's most profound contradictions.

In mentioning Marx, we should finish of this review by noting that Lenin's work (like Marx's Capital) has little to say about socialism. This is because Lenin, again like Marx, is engaged in a project of understanding capitalism in order to progress the radical and revolutionary movement against it. The Development of Capitalism in Russia is in effect a polemic against those who fail to grasp either the development of capitalism itself in that country or its historical significance.

Lenin's sharp awareness of the development and growth of the working class in rural and urban areas is a recognition in the emergence of a force in Russia that could challenge both capitalism and the remnants of the old order. A few years after the completion of the first edition of this book, that working class would explode onto Russia's historical stage in the revolution of 1905, the dress rehearsal for the revolution of 1917. Lenin would further develop these ideas in his articles on the agrarian programme for the left.

Few today read The Development of Capitalism in Russia. This is a shame. It is a book that has perhaps been unduly neglected for Marxists studying the development of capitalism. Much of the material here has clear parallels with the emergence of capitalism in Europe. The book is, in places, a difficult read - mostly because Lenin backs up every single argument with multiple statistics and figures. Some of the editions of this work have some beautiful pull outs of tables, and facsimilies of Lenin's original drafts. The figures however should not deter the reader. There's much of interest here.

Monday, May 18, 2026

Willa Cather - O Pioneers!

I stumbled upon Willa Cather's O Pioneers!' due to my interest in the people and history of the North American praire. First published in 1913, but in part based on the authors' own experiences as a youngster in the late 1800s, it feels like a very modern novel.

Alexandra Bergson is the capable and highly intelligent daughter of her and her brothers' beloved widowed father. On his death she takes over the running of the land and through a series of carefully planned decisions manages to turn the farm into a highly successful concern. She carefully questions the other farmers, reads the news and keeps abreast of the market, planting crops that are considered marginal, until they become highly profitable. Quickly the farm expands, but Alexandra herself defies convention - she doesn't marry and prefers an austere lifestyle. Eventually she falls out with her brothers who are convinced that despite her leadership on the farm, most of the land is rightfully hers.

The book, like many others of its type, tells a number of shorter stories centred on the lives and loves of the people in the area. There are two great arcs though, the first centres on Alexandra and her relationship to the land. The land is a key character in the novel - the changing seasons as well as the industrialisation of the farms as they change from early, amateur efforts into a managed landscape. The other arc traces the love between Alexandra's younger brother Emil and her, married, friend Marie.

These stories form the heart of the novel. The praire is a tough place to farm. As the novel opens many farms are failing and families are heading back to the cities to try for jobs in factories and industry to improve their lot. The reader knows, of course, that two decades after this novel is set the Dustbowl and the Great Depression will decimate the farms again. But Alexandra draws the farm into prosperity in a time when farming in North America could boom.

But what struck me reading the book was the novel's treatment of three issues that feel very modern. The first of these is gender and sexuality. It is very likely that Willa Cather herself was LGBT+. It is hard not to see some of her life in Alexandra's decisions which seem to defy the traditional relationships of the community around her.

Secondly is the question of Mental Distress. One of the people who work on Alexandra's farm is Ivar. A many who hate the killing of animals, who prefers to live alone and prefers a cave to a house. He is a wizard with horses and animal care, he advises Alexandra how to look after their pigs when others are dying of disease. But his unusual behaviour and frequent mood swings and depressions lead some to think that Ivar is dangerous and threatening. Once again, in defiance of the community around her, Alexandra refuses to accept this and promises to become Ivar's ward if the doctors come to take him away. This kindness brings its rewards towards the end of the novel. But the most interesting thing is how this kindness and rejection of the stigma of mental health feels so unusal for a novel of this time period.

Finally, the question of immigration is central to the story. Almost everyone in the book is a Swedish-American immigrant. The religion, politics and culture of the old world is transplanted to the New, and evolves. At the back of many of the older members of society are their hopes and dreams, and memories, of Europe.

There is one big ommission - Native Americans play no role in the book. I didn't see a single reference, which is disappointing given the great themes of land and labour.

While the nostalgia that is at the heart of the motive power of O Pioneers! can feel a little thick at times, this is still a powerful and moving book. I look forward to reading the follow up books in Cather's trilogy.

Related Reviews

Norris - The Octopus
Williams - Butcher's Crossing
Cronon - Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West
McDonald - The Red Corner: The Rise & Fall of Communism in Northeastern Montana

Friday, May 15, 2026

Fred Wien & Rick Williams - Contested Waters: The Struggle for Rights & Reconciliation in the Atlantic Fishery

In 2020 Indigenous fishers from the Mi’kmaw First Nation in Nova Scotia came under attack from settler fishers. The Indigenous fishers were exercising their treaty rights, as granted by the Canadian Supreme Court, to catch lobster for ceremonial, personal use and to make a "moderate" living. The White settlers physically attacked Indigenous fishers, racially abused them, destroyed equipment and boats and threatened supporters. The Canadian police stood by and watched.

Why did this happen? What was the background? How have Indigenous fishers won their rights? And how can we ensure that all fishers are able to support their livelihoods in Nova Scotia and beyond, in a sustainable and equitable way? These are the questions that are addressed in Contested Waters, a collection of essays by fishers, Indigenous leaders and activists, politicians and scientists.

The first thing to understand is that fishing is not a peripheral part of the economy of the Canadian economy. In 2018, "the fishery generated almost $870 million in employment income flowing through fishing communities in the three Maritime provinces and Quebec." The industry is growing rapidly, and income is growing fast as the cost of fish increases. This does not mean that more fish are being landed. This point is also crucial as some see the industry as growing exponetially in terms of its impact on the maritime ecology.

Indigenous people have responded to this in a number of ways. The most significant and dramatic change has been the consortium of six First Nations who have bought a 50 percent ownership in Clearwater Seafoods, "the largest shellfish processing company in Canada". This enables those Nations to profit from the regions fishing through becoming a clearing house for fishing catches and a reseller. Other Nations have formed networks to similar manage the fishing. Elsipogtog First Nation in New Brunswick, "to build up a fleet of more than seventy inshore vessels harvesting lobster, snow crab and a few other species". In 2021 this fllet brough in $19 million and $16 million in lobster and crab for the Nation. Other Nations have successfully managed quotas and licenses to bring new Indigenous fishers into the industry and manage the economic benefits.

These changes have been possible in part, because of the activism that forced the Canadian Supreme Court to recognise Indigenous fishing rights, in the so called Marshall Decision. Marshall runs like a thread through the book, and there is a fascinating chapter by L. Jane McMillan, Fishing with Donald Marshall Jnr, whose arrest for asserting his right to catch eels saw a "wrongful prosecution, conviction and denial of his appeals". It was, she rights, "emblematic of the systemic discrimination and racism expereinced by Canadian Indigenous Peoples during the twentieth and now twenty-first centuries."

One of the key outcomes of the Marshall Decision was the "Indigneous right to a moderate livelihood". The problem was that this has never been clarified, and indeed it is awfully nebulous. As one group of authors' right on this, the outcome has led to further confusion even as it as asserted the rights of the First Nations:

Criticism... has persisted among Indigenous communities that there has been insufficient effort by Department of Fisheries and Oceans to ensure the Treaty Rights the Court affirmed in the Marshall decisions can be integrated and respected within current regulatory regimes. As a result, Indigenous communities, like the Sipekne'katik First Nation in Nova Scotia, have moved forward with their own self-regulated fisheries. In respnse, there has again been tension and even violence.

As they conclude "there's further work to do for all parties to agree on just what an Indigenous moderate livelihood looks like and how an Indigenous moderate livelihood fishery can be implemented in Atlantic Canada.

One chapter, A Mi'kmaw Approach to Managing Fisheries looks at the history of Indigenous fishing practices and the alternative they pose to commerical fishing. This discusses how fish and eels are respected, not caught when they are breeding or vulnerable and not collected in too large quantities:

Eelers, regardless of age or having children, spoke of wanting to make sure that the eels would be around for the next seven generations due to the important lessons eeling can teach about respect and the environment.

They continue:

Many respondents felt htat commerical fishing for eels had caused the decline of populations.. Several participants shared their anger and frustration with the non-Indigenous elver fishery and that it is allowed to continue when the eel population is low.

While it is worth celebrating this approach to natural resources, it is clear that it clashes with reality of commerical fishing for profit. An additional problem is caused because the First Nations themselves are engaging in the industry in a commerical way. This means that there will be a tension between the First Nations' ethos and the need to compete with non-First Nations fishing. This is reflected in the book's chapter on "commerical harvesting". The authors note:

The progressive expansion of First Nations fisheries holds some potential to destabilise the fisheries co-management system and harvester trust in it. Whether fairly and correctly or not, harvesters at the wharf level feel their livelihoods and the sustainability of thewir communities are threatened. They are putting increasing pressure on their leaders and organisations to advocate for the interests as publicly and aggressively as they see Indigenous leaders advancing their cause and defending their rights. These feelings of powerlessness and uncertainty about the future are exacerbating the miustrust and polaristaion between communities and seeding the ground for future conflict.

The authors go on to hope tha tther ewill be new forms of dialogue and engagemetn that can solve these issues. While it is clear that there are real dialogues taking place between communities and places to try and resolve tensions, I'm unsure that this will be enough. Part of the problem is that fishing is extremely profitable, but little of the value makes it back to the communities who need it. While Indigenous communities remain poor, non-First Nation communities also rely on government support during the non-fishing season. In these situations it is easy for politicians and corporations to blame others, rather than offering support and help. Tensions will likely break out again. This contradition is brought out by Fred Wien and Jeff Denis who, in a chapter on "overcoming racism" conclude:

An effective anti-racism strategy must come to grips with the underlying tensions and issues,. The fundamental issue is one of a gruop legitimately seeking reater participation in accessing a limited resource where existing interests are entrenched and the struggle is defined in zero-sum terms. Strategies need to be purused that involve measures such as making room for First Nations fishers in such away that the livelihoods of non-Indigenous fishers are taken into consideration... it also involves clarifying and obtaining acceptance of the ground rules for the fishing effort, how the moderate livelihood fishery will be managed and by whom and how sustainability of the resource will be ensured.

Firstly racism must be confronted. But at the same time ordinary fishers on the Atlantic Coast, both from the First Nations and non-Indigenous communities need to recognise that they have more in common than divides them. This means recognising that the fight has to be to ensure that both communities benefit from the hard and dangerous work at sea, and that both communities have to be tasked with managing, democratically, the resources. It also means acknowledging that fishing for profit will always lead to resource depletion as corpoations try to maximise profits. That has to be fought and challenged.

This will not be easy. There are people who are racist and prepared to use violence. They need to be exposed and challenged. While the book is perhaps overly optimistic about doing this within the framework of existing institutions and organisations, the authors clearly feel hopeful. The challenge however will be for ordinary fishers and their supporters to unite and resist both the commerical destruction of fisheries and the disunity caused by hundreds of years of government racism towards Indigenous peoples.

Thursday, May 07, 2026

Trevor Royle - Fighting Mac: The Downfall of Major-General Sir Hector Macdonald

Sir Hector Macdonald was an unusual soldier in the British Army in the late 19th and very early 20th century. He distinguished himself at the Battle of Omdurman, being more competent than the usual British officers in killing African soldiers who mostly carried swords when facing artillery and machine guns. But what distinguished him was not just his ability to command troops in an era when officers were often incompetent. This was true at Omdurman, but it was doubly true in the First Boer War when Macdonald's superiors demonstrated astonishing limitations in the field of command.

What made Macdonald unusual was that he had come from a poor crofter's background and risen through the ranks on the back of his competence.

This was very unusual in the period. The British Army had only just got rid of the Purchasing of Commissions as a means to becoming an officer, and ordinary troops being promoted upward was not yet common. It meant that "Fighting Mac" as he was known, was famous and popular, and was the source of patriotic pride for thousands of Scotsmen. His poor background made it extremely difficult to survive in this atmosphere. Being a British Officer then still required the soldier to purchase his own uniforms and so on, as well as dine out and be seen. There was enormous pressure on Macdonald and it is fair to say, at least in Trevor Royle's telling, that Fighting Mac struggled with the fame and the spectacle.

But at the height of his fame Macdonald was laid low by scandal and committed suicide. The scandal itself concerned "very grave charges". Royle argues that these were "homosexual" in origin. It seems likely that Macdonald was gay. While he married young and had a son, his relationship with his wife was distant - during his military career they hardly ever met and almost no one knew they were married. In fact this was possibly deliberate. At the time Macdonald's regiment did not allow officers to be married. Homosexuality was illegal at the time, and while there may have been suspicions within the army about Macdonald, nothing was proved. Royle details the repression and secrecy of gay men, and some of the scandals at the time that meant there was "a good deal of public interest" in homosexuality during Victoria's reign. It was considered "an illness bordering on insanity" and would have destroyed Macdonald's career and damaged anyone associated with him - since he had been close to members of the Royal Family this would have been a problem for the establishment.

In 1902 Macdonald was posted to command the troops in Ceylon. He arrived in March, and was "a man who may have been under suspicion" for his sexuality. Whether or not he was actually "under suspicion" or not, he did not improve his situation by "spurning polite society". Lack of funds meant he did not entertain, he was rude to the gentlemen who served in the local milita, and he befriended "a number of Burgher families - old Ceylonese familes of mixed European, usually Portugese and native Celonese origins". Macdonalds friendsship with the Burgher community and particularly a "family called de Saram" outraged the English colonial class. As Royle put's it, he was to "pay for his lack of allegiance to the white planter class".

The scandal erupted when Macdonald was suspected of "spending too much time" with the de Saram family children, especially their two sons. Rumours were that there was a "sexual relationship" between the boys and the General. While homosexuality "was an accepted and natural fact of life amongst the native Ceylonese... the de Sarams were a strict Burgher family whose code of morals proably owed more to their Portugese ancestry than to local customs".

Two versions of what caused the scandal exist. Both of them involve Macdonald being caught in some sexual relationship with boys on a train. Macdonald was sent back to England when the news borke, by his commanding officer, and then returned to Ceylon to try to clear his name. On the way back he stopped in Paris, and shot himself in a hotel room.

It was a huge scandal and Macdonald was buried with indecent haste, quickly and without ceremony. Thousands of Scots were shocked and heart broken, disbelieving the rumours and wanting to celebrate his life and patriotism.

There is no doubt that MacDonald was treated badly by the Army command. It is possible that this was in part because of his class background. It is also because Macdonald's senior officers were foolish. Royle asks whether MacDonald could have got away with the accusations and survived the scandal. He answers yes, pointing out that similar scandals had been dealt with without soldiers committing suicide or the public hearing of them:

If Macdonald had been possessed of influence in high places or indeed of more wordliness, or a guinea or two, then he could have taken legal or political advice and perhaps have put a damper on the charges.

Royle further suggested that Macdonald misplaced faith in the army and his belief in "honour" made him think that suicide was the only way out. It was the only way to "regain the army's trust in him".

From a 21st century perspective though it is difficult to see this in the same way as Royle does, writing in 1982. But there is a repeated conflation of homosexuality with pedestry. While Macdonald may have been gay, the scandal was actually around "the fact that he liked little boys perhaps too much" to quote Royle. While Royle doesn't claim Macdonald as a tragic victim of homophobia and certainly not as a hero for the LGBT+ movement today, the conflation of homosexuality with abusive and inappropriate relationships sits badly today.

Macdonald was, no doubt, a victim of prejudice, and Royle is right to say that he had been forced to "live a lie". We do not know the full evidence for the scandal that destroyed him, and General Macdonald was probably a victim of forces in the British military who hated him for his background. But he was also a man who used his position in society to abuse boys.

Trevor Royle's book details the case well, and Macdonald's career is interesting, as is the material on the scandal and the awful position of gay men in Victorian society. But the book feels very dated with phrases such as "latent homosexual" being particularly noticeable.

Stephen Graham Jones - My Heart is a Chainsaw

My Heart is a Chainsaw is the first in a trilogy of horror novels by Stephen Graham Jones. As I mentioned in my earlier review of his book The Only Good Indians there is a strong tradition of such works being used to discuss wider social and political themes. My Heart is a Chainsaw uses the genre in a very meta way to discuss big issues and more individual ones.

The book is set in a lakeside town of Proofrock, Idaho. It's a small town on Indian Lake. Jade Daniels is about to graduate, but her childhood has been hard. In her final semester she attempts suicide. Coming back to Proofrock she becomes convinced that the town is about to experience a slasher killing, as portrayed in a myriad of films that Jade is obsessed by. Jade's internal monologue, and increasingly frequently, her conversations with others, is peppered with references to events, plot devices and tropes of the slasher movie genre. She even identifies a "final girl" in Letha Mondragon a beautiful new girl in the school. Letha is popular, bright and the daughter of the fabulously wealthy Theo who is developing the far side of Indian Lake into a exclusive and expensive new housing area. The lake will be the playground of the rich and Proofrock will be the source of their labour and services.

As the victims begin to pile up there's alot of ambiguity about who is doing the killing. Jade is convinced it is a slasher and for a time people think the killer might be her. The reality is both more sinister and in keeping with the tropes of the genre.

The book carefully ties up the horror with the wider social problems of poverty, boredom and abuse inherent to a poor, forgotten rural community. The rich, with their yachts and wealth, form a nice counter-point to the reality of Proofrock. Indeed their chosen name for their development Terra Nova, might echo the way that settlers viewed indigenous people and their lands when Europeans arrived.

One of the most important themes of slasher movies for Jade is revenge. For her, the slashers are fighting injustice - literarily. The murders they commit are supposed to rectify some ancient evil or balance out some horror. But Jade divorces the events from her personal history. She doesn't get that she is the centre point of the story, believing that Letha in all her "final girl" glory of beauty and innocence, isn't the protagonist Jade thinks she is. As a result the finale takes everyone by surprise and allows Jones to keep misdirecting the reader while Jade stumbles through the chaos. A great read, but one that's really too gory for me.

Related Reviews

Jones - The Only Good Indians

Thursday, April 30, 2026

Martha A. Sandweiss - The Girl in the Middle: A recovered history of the American West

In 1868 the pioneer American photographer Alexander Gardner joined a delegation from the US government that was negotiating with the Lakota and other Native American tribes. They met at Fort Laramie in Wyoming Territory, and Gardner made a number of images of the negotiators, the Native Americans and the landscape. One of these is a striking picture showing six men, some in military uniform, others in different smart clothes. All of them stand rather incongrously, facing the camera, each other, or staring into the middle distance. In the middle, a young woman faces the camera directly on. To my eyes there's an air of defiance about her look. She is not named on the back of copies of the photos though the others are.

When Martha A. Sandweiss came across this image she was immediately, and unsurprisingly, struck by it. But she was also taken by the fact that the woman was unnamed. The anonymity might stand for the way women are written out of history, something doubly true for indigenous women. Who was she? Why was she there? What became of her? Answering these questions required a lot of detective work, a bit of luck and dogged determination. In finding out the answers Sandweiss unearthed a lot about American history, its violence and the complicated and intersecting lives of the subjects of the picture.

Standing over the story is Gardner. The photographer's fascinating life began with his immersion in the Scottish radical movement. Emigrating to the Americas with others he hoped to set up a utopian town were settlers like him could live equally. Ironically, given the book's context, the land they settled on was taken forcibly from Native Americans. The project, like many others of its type, fell apart. Gardner tried his hand at many things, but eventually became a celebrated photographer who almost single handedly was responsible for inventing photo-journalism. His pictures of the aftermath of Civil War battlefields brough the war home to the American public and were taken with not a little risk to himself. His portraits of the great and the good were also celebrated, and Gardner is perhaps most famous today for his pictures of Abraham Lincoln and his assassins.

Of the other white men in the picture, some were veterans, some politicians and all of them had led lives that reflected aspects of American history and life on the frontier. One of them was a killer. General William S. Harney is the only white person in the photo who is looking directly at the camera. He was experienced in "Indian affairs" though the nature of his experience is best illustrated by the name the Lakota gave him: "Woman Killer". He epitomises both the violence of the US government against Native Americans, but also the insidious way that the violence of US society embedded itself in individuals. Sandweiss describes him:

Harney carried with him to Fort Laramie not just a long military record but also a pesonal history of cruelty and abuse. He beat subordinates. He abused women. He drove away his own family. And he was a murderer. Not just according to the fuzzy rules of wartime engagement, but within his own household. His violent streak often erupted in public life, yet early on, it was honed at home.

The murder "within his own household" was the beating to death of Hannah, an enslaved woman whom he suspected of stealing his keys. While he was found to killed her according to the coroner, he was acquitted in court. The lives of enslaved people mattering little.

The young Native American woman was Sophie Mousseau. We owe this knowledge to a chance identification by someone who saw the picture and annotated it for Sandweiss to stumble upon later. Oral and family history, archival material and legal documents have fleshed out an incredible tale.

The Mousseaus were a mixed heritage family, who arrived in Fort Laramie after losing their business due to a Native American attack. The backstory is a fascinating account of life on the US frontier, settler history and the way that families were destroyed by the US Army. Sophie's parents were married fifty years. Her father was a French-Canadian trader, M. A. Mousseau. Her mother, Yellow Woman, was a Lakota woman who survived a horrific massacre at Blue Water Creek. This massacre saw almost 90 Native Americans murdered by troops led by General Harney. Coincidences like this abound throughout the book and throughout the stories of those who are in the photo.

Sophie's life is complicated and chaotic. One feels that she was never far from the horrors of the American West and the poverty inflicted on Native Americans by the victorous government. In 1890, she was working in the Pine Ridge Reservation when the Wounded Knee Massacre took place.

But by failing to name Sophie on the photograph, Gardner showed how unimportant Native Americans were to those who were building the United States. Her anonimity stands for the rewriting of history, which relegated Native Americans to being people who were lost to time. Gardner's title for the collection of images of which this was one was "Scenes from Indian Country". It reflects the way that Native Americans were being turned into curiosities.

But as Sandweiss says, by knowing who Sophie was and what happened to her, we rescue her history and wider history. She is no longer just surrounded by famous white men. She represents the lost and forgotten history of the Native American peoples. Sandweiss writes:

But knowing who that girl is shifts things, refocussing our attention from the men around her to her. In centering her, we decenter them. Sophie's living descendants have had scattered stories, but no picture with which to visualise their ancestor. Conversely the viewers of Gardner's photograph have had a face without a name. Put the name and the face together, dig into the historical records and a largely forgotten life becomes more knowable.

This matters because Sophie had a life that was inseperable from the history of America. Tragically her life reflected the violence of US history, a violence that is often ignored or downplayed. It is mostly a violence done to Indigenous people. But it is also domestic violence, murder and family trauma.

If Sandweiss had only rescued Sophie from anonymity it would be important and interesting enough. But something more comes from this. Martha A. Sandweiss reminds us all, but American people in particular, that we have to resist the current US government's attempts to rewrite US history.

In National Parks across the United States, on monuments and in museums, officials are removing historical markers, names and descriptions that seek to tell visitors and tourists real stories. The story of The Girl in the Middle - Sophie Mousseau - reminds us of the importance of all those labels, nametags, markers and monuments. If history is a battleground, this book is a good example of the fights we need to wage to remember the past and shape the future.

Terry Pratchett - A Hat Full of Sky

Tiffany Aching is one of the great characters of Terry Pratchett's Discworld fantasies. While the novels she is in are aimed at young adults - Tiffany is only 11 in this one - they are profoundly clever works exploring our moral universe with a dash of anarchy and chaos. A Hat Full of Sky is the second Tiffany Aching novel after she defeated the Queen of the Fairies and temporarily becomes the Kelda of the local Nac Mac Feegle. These "pixies" are violent, drunken, agreesive and fiercly loyal inhabitants of the Chalklands were Tiffany lives (analogous to Wilthshire) and after her victory they are her protectors and chaotic influences.

Tiffany heads to become an apprentice to the elderly Witch Miss Level. One the way she is attacked by an indestructible creture called a Hiver which has been around since the beginning of time, absorbing and taking over individuals, feeding off their memories and knowledge. After several surprises in Miss Level's home, Tiffany meets other apprentices, some of whom are convinced that the more showy aspects of magic are the most important thing. Trinketts and explosions over care and morals.

Tiffany, together with her mentor Granny Weatherwax, eventually defeat the Hiver and restore safety to the universe. It's a fairly decent fairy tale, and everyone gets their just desserts or rewards at the end.

Except. It is much more than that. It's a wonderful example of Pratchett's carefully drawn world. His buccolic rural setting where the rural economy is backed up by gentle magic. Where real magic exists, but proper magic is knowing how to look after a dying man and help his widow clean the sheets the day after. Its a carefully constructed moral universe where people love and live, and get back what they put in. The moral Witches' moral economy is particularly interesting, as payment and reward are constantly fed back into the wider social and economic world, keeping things going and passing on good.

Threats to the order are dire, but can be faced with honesty and bravery. While there's a lot of fantasy here, its a kind world where Pratchett celebrates our humanity and kindness in general. We could learn a lot.

Sunday, April 26, 2026

Daniel Defoe - A Journal of the Plague Year

During the Coronavirus pandemic Daniel Defoe's A Journal of the Plague Year gained a new popularity. Despite being an account of one man's experiences during the Plague of 1665, readers found many parallels with their own experiences of sudden death, mass sickness, panic and isolation. The book reads like a historical account. It's filled with weekly deaths neatly tabulated (another familiar thing for those who lived through 2020 onward). The author's accounts of walking deserted streets, stories of their neighbours and anecdotes of a deserted London read like a real experience.

But Daniel Defoe's book is not a real account. It is a sort of meta-fiction, based no doubt on experiences that Defore had related to him, and, at times it references real people and places. But it is fictional. While the numbers quoted might be real, the reader is forced at times to question what might be real and what might be imaginery. Again, the lack of clarity, might be something familiar to those who survived Covid-19.

That said scholars do tend to think there is a lot of reality present. The account is signed HF. Defoe had an uncle with those initials, and in a slightly incongrous moment in the text, there is a reference to a cemetary, where the author is buried. The tempation to read the book as fiction, or as non-fiction remains everywhere. Nonetheless Defoe captures the experience in ways that are tempting to link to our own times.

Defoe, or his narrator, care little for the experiences of the rich and powerful. There are few references to the Court, the Royal Family, or famous figures other than those who play some role in relieving or helping the population such as the Lord Mayor. Instead Defoe demonstrates a concern for the ordinary person, reflecting the worry and uncertainty of a city whose population is leaving in droves. Take the servants that Defoe describes as worrying about their future if their masters leave:

Their Question generally was, after the first demand of, Will there be a Plague? I say, the next Question was, Oh Sir! For the Lord's sake, what will become of me? Will my Mistress keep me, or will she turn me off? Will she stay here, or will she go into the Country? And if she goes into the Country, will she take me with her, or leave me here to be starv'd and undone.

These questions Defoe says were addressed chiefly by maidservants to the various quacks and astrologers who plyed their trade in the early days. Not a few workers asked similar things of their bosses, trade unions and colleagues in the days of lockdown.

Defoe bemoans who the poor, tricked into buying useless potions were "carried away in the Dead-Carts" and "thrown into the common Graves" of every Parish. He describes these tragedies. The sudden deaths and the occasional miraculous escape. Above all he is obssessed with the empty homes and shops. More often he is also fascinated by the experiences of those found with the plague - locked into their family homes to survive as they could - and guarded by watchment. Defoe's narrator takes a salacious delight in telling the stories of those that escaped, the occasional bribery of officials or the sneaking out of back windows.

But these examples aside the book actually chronicles a time of solidarity and support. Kindness and compassion. There are many people who stay at their posts. Or try to help. From physicians to politicians, but most often church figures - Defoe impresses on the reader that while there is crime amidst the horror, what characterises things are those who try to help. In particular I was struck by his descriptions of priests. Their numbers denuded by death and escape, dissenters who previously would have been shunned are drawn in to play the role offering prayers and salvation. And home important this was to the 17th century population:

As it brought the People into publick Company, so it was surprizing how it brought them to crowd into the Churches, they inquir'd no more into who they sat near to, or far from, what offensive Smells they met with, or what condition the People seemed to be in, but looking upon themselves all as so many dead Corpses, they came to the Churches with the least Caution, and crowded together, as if their Lives were of no Consequence, compar'd to the Work which they came about there.

Readers might also notice then that the disease democratised the religious space.

Interestingly Defoe is also impressed by the official response. He lists the rules and regulations (that modern science knows made little difference) but he also talks of the relief efforts. Those who remained in London and were well did not starve. Though Defoe does acknowledge that there would have been rebellion had such aid not been forthcoming.

While it's not a historical account, Defoe's book feels real. It is, perhaps, an early example of historical fiction. It is also a meandering book in two ways. The first is that Defoe's narrator meanders in his account. This is not a account that follows a time line of events. Rather its like a slightly drunk storyteller who goes back and forth, returning to themes and anecdotes. Secondly, and most of interest to the modern reader, is that this is a book that meanders through space. Defoe takes us down the streets and alleyways of London, making sure we know exactly where things are and who lived where. This is not the London of the Tower, or famous bridges. It's the London of backstreets and cheap housing. His readers would have recognised every nook and crany, for much of it was rebuilt on the same plan after the fire of 1666.

A Journal of the Plague Year is a remarkable book. An insight into a previous disaster, one whose shadow long hung over the city. A tragic and shocking year that must have felt even more frightening for the lack of any real explanation. Supernatural mixes with the latest science in Defoe's telling. Don't wait till the next pandemic before you read it.

Dashiell Hammett - The Thin Man

It is New York, Christmas ,1932. Prohibition is almost over and so most people are drinking quite heavily. There is a lot of cigarette smoke, quite a few late night parties, many visits to not very pleasant speakeasys and murder hangs over the whole town. Nick Charles is in town with his wife Nora. Nick is a former detective. Now he looks after his father in law's businesses and is doing very well for himself. His wife Nora is a socialite who drifts between parties and is wary of her husband's drinking. Neither of them get up early.

While hanging about drinking in a speakeasy Nick is approached by Dorothy Wynan. She's the daughter of a former client of Nick's called Clyde. Clyde hasn't been seen in a long time and Dorothy is worried. She's also flirtatious. Everyone is flirtatious, and one of the entertaining things about Dashiell Hammett's The Thin Man is the banter and flitrtation between Nora and Nick. "How about that red-head you wandered off with at the Quinn's last night" she asks him early on in the novel. "She just wanted to show me some French etchings" answers Nick.

Once Clyde's former secretary and mistress, Julia Wolf, is found dead, the plot gets going. Nick finds himself surrounded by a mystery that he has no interest in being part of. Nora is fascinated and he somewhat enjoys himself by showing her the detective ropes. He is further drawn in by being shot at by a gangster who was Julia's lover, and flirted at by Mimi, Clyde's former wife who is now down on her luck as her cash is running out. The police are keen for Nick to be involved and, to make it even more complicated, Clyde's lawyer is a former comrade of Nick's from the army. He's a hopeless shot - Nick saved his life at least once.

Like all decent detective stories, and Hammett's in particular there is a complex plot which throws in loose ends and new characters every few pages. At various points in the novel I suspected every single one of the people above to be guilty, including Nora (for no apparent reason). Classically there's also a thin line between state investigation and private detectives. The cops simply take Nick along with them to key investigations.

The Thin Man was Hammett's last novel. Its themes are the hypocrisy and drunkenness of America in the 1920s and 1930s and the lazy, wasteful lives of a section of the monied classes. Few of the characters are working. Fewer still get up before 8am or are in bed before midnight. Its a dark, seedy world. Hammett would develop the characters into a series of films. Though some of the scripts remained unfilmed, The Thin Man is dedicated to Lillian Hellman, the blacklisted playwright whom Hammett was romantically linked to for many years.

The Thin Man's conclusion is not particularly surprising, though its executed with typical flair. But the novel itself feels darker and deeper than many others of its genre. A classic.

Thursday, April 23, 2026

Ian Angus - Metabolic Rifts: Capitalism's Assault on the Earth

Karl Marx eagerly devoured writings on all aspects of history, culture and science. Anyone who has read a small part of his work will be struck by references to contemporary politics, history, science, art and culture. But in 1851 Marx read a paper that altered how he thought about the world. This was by Roland Daniels, a fellow Communist activist, doctor and scientist which described something called "organic metabolism", the "simultaneous destruction and regeneration" of living organisms. Daniels thought that this could be used to understand human society and Marx, agreeing, placed metabolic ideas at the heart of his ongoing analysis of humans and society.

The concept of "metabolism" for Marx, and Marxists, has been the subject of intense discussion in recent years. A quarter of a century ago John Bellamy Foster wrote a fundamental text Marx's Ecology which drew out the ecological core of Marx's though and popularised the concept of "metabolic rift". In the years since, metabolic rift theory has become a tool eagerly used by revolutionaries to understand the relationship between capitalism and nature and how to change it. But it has also been critiqued by some on the Marxist left and by more people on the right.

Ian Angus has been a prominent figure in these discussions through his online journal Climate and Capitalism and this, his latest book, is a study of "Metabolic Rift" and a reassertion of key concepts. But Angus goes much further than restating the arguments. He notes that

Marx could not have known how broad, deep, high and complex the metabolism was. Scientists in his time were just beginning to study the metabolic processes that make life possible at every level, from cells to the entire planet, and even today vast parts are not well understood. But he grasped the essence of the matter, and his insights provide a basic framework for understanding what is happening to the Earth System at all levels today.

So Angus' book sets itself the task of firstly explaining the "metabolic" framework and then using it to explain what is happening to the Earth System today. It is a huge task, and while Angus doesn't claim to write a full analysis of what is going wrong, he offers both a general approach and specific examples that explain the interlocked environmental crises we are facing.

In writing this book Angus stands in a long, if neglected or forgotten, tradition of key Marxist figures engaging with science to understand history and the world. Marx's metabolic approach was mostly forgotten after his death, but not by all. In a key chapter he looks at the work of three Marxists - Bebel, Kautsky and Bukharin - to demonstrate how they each, in different ways approached social and scientific questions in a similar way to Marx. I am particularly glad that Angus devotes some time to Kautsky's work The Agrarian Question, which was described by Lenin as "the most important even in present day economic literature". It is a book that ought to be more widely read for those trying to understand precisely while capitalist agriculture is so destructive.

But I was taken by Angus' account of an earlier work by August Bebel. Bebel's 1879 book Woman and Socialism was one of the most widely read popular expositions of socialist ideas. It was also a book that explored ecological issues. Bebel wrote that capitalist agriculture is "soil vandalism" and it "cripples the land and decreases the crops". He also bemoaned environmental destruction including "the senseless ravaging of forests, for the sake of profit".

Angus explains that the books like these "disproves the canard that socialists of the late 1800s and early 1900s did not know or care about the universal metaolism of nature or the environmental destruction caused by rifts in that metabolism". That said he acknowledges that there was a loss of this knowledge and it is being rediscovered. But this "does not mean that everyone understands the funamental concepts". Crucially, "a common misunderstanding in articles on metabolic rift... is treating it as a metaphor rather than as a description of real global circumstances".

The bulk of the book then is an attempt to explain these core concepts. Angus does this by firstly explaining the metabolic processes that are key to the Earth's systems. Some of these are ancient. Angus' explores how life evolved and how it required chemicals that arose out of key cyclical processes that are built into the planet's geological systems and climate.

Perhaps the most impressive chapters however are those that show how the Earth's metabolic processes are being broken by capitalism. Two of these chapters are essential reading - on the breaking of the carbon cycle (which is driving climate change) and the disruption of the nitrogen cycle. The latter a rarely mentioned crisis that is causing serious problems. Industrial agriculture is pumping nitrogen into Earth's systems faster than any natural process can break it down. The "glut" is breaking a cycle that has exised for "hundreds of millions of years" which saw:

Constant recycling of reactive nitrogen in multiple forms, "a metabolism prescibed by the natural laws of life itself," enabled plant and animal life to thrive almost everywhere on the planet.

But:

Planetary boundaries research confirms that the current level of industrial nitrogen "cannot continue without significantly eroding the resilience of major components of Earth-System functioning".

To fix this, Angus concludes, requires taking control of the valves and "expropriating" the factories. He says:

However it is achieved, social control of nitrogen production must ensure a radical reduction of nitrogen use. That will require balancing the need to prevent ecological damage aganst the need to produce sufficient food, not just withing a country, but globally. It may one day be possible to feed the world without synthetic fertiliser and other chemicals, but undoing the damage that capitalism has caused won't be easy or quick.

The Nitrogen cycle chapter demonstrates very well the great strength of Angus' book, which is the way that Marxism must engage with science to develop strategies that can offer solutions to environmental crises. This is explicitly explored in the final chapters when Angus shows how scientists often come close to recognising that the environmental crises we face are systemic ones, but seldom draw revolutionary conclusions. He warns, however, that what science shows is that the changes needed are urgent, but will also take "decades". Day two of the "revolution" will not see ecological equilibrium restored. But it will open up a space where workers, scientists and activists can find a way forward - at the same time as having access to the wealth and power they need to deal with immediate issues. This, as Angus says, is not about "reordering capitalism" but building a new society in tune with the natural world. Nonetheless the first revolutionary stage is necessary, and I was struck by a pertinent quote that Angus uses from the great ecological socialist William Morris that I had not read before. Morris said:

The first real victory of the Social Revolution will be the establishment not indeed of a complete system of communism in a day, which is absurd, but of a revolutionary adminstration whose definite and conscious aim will be to prepare and further, in all available ways, human life for such a system.

Looking at the world around us the catastrophe threatens on multiple fronts: imperialist war, genocide, economic stagflation and environmental disaster. In Metabolic Rifts Ian Angus reminds us that there is a deep tradition of revolutionary politics closely engaged with scientific research, that offers an understanding of the chaos around us. It also offers us a strategy to change it. I urge readers to read it.